The net gain from one cycle is 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 as hydrogen- (proton plus electron)-carrying compounds and 1 high-energy GTP, which may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Cellular respiration occurs as a series of chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes, the first of which is glycolysis, a series of anaerobic reactions in which glucose (a 6-carbon molecule) is split into two molecules of lactate (a 3-carbon molecule), producing a net gain of two ATP molecules. [4] In practice the efficiency may be even lower because the inner membrane of the mitochondria is slightly leaky to protons. In microorganisms the enzymes occur as components of the cell membrane. (For longer treatments of various aspects of cellular respiration, see tricarboxylic acid cycle and metabolism.). c. oxygen. The energy released is stored in the form of ATP molecules. [4] However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.[4]. Cellular respiration, the process by which organisms combine oxygen with foodstuff molecules, diverting the chemical energy in these substances into life-sustaining activities and discarding, as waste products, carbon dioxide and water. The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. During this stage, every … The three processes of ATP production include glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Updates? Cellular respiration is a type of cellular metabolism that extracts biochemical energy from various nutritive chemicals and converts it into ATP, the universal energy transfer molecule. In addition, the compound nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is converted to NADH during this step (see below). The carbon dioxide is taken to the lungs, where it is exchanged for oxygen. The products of a single turn of the TCA cycle consist of three NAD+ molecules, which are reduced (through the process of adding hydrogen, H+) to the same number of NADH molecules, and one FAD molecule, which is similarly reduced to a single FADH2 molecule. The energy is produced by cellular respiration, and this energy is stored in ATP molecules. Ring in the new year with a Britannica Membership, This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/science/cellular-respiration, Khan Academy - Overview of cellular respiration, cellular respiration - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up). All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient. Covers location and the chemical steps of cellular respiration. The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes. Most ATP generation occurs during the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation stage of cellular respiration. This is where the process of cellular respiration takes over. Heterotrophs (like humans) ingest other living things to obtain glucose. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation. In this activity you will begin to look at the aerobic and anaerobic processes that are used by all organisms to produce ATP. According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36–38, but only about 30–32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose [8], because: So finally we have, per molecule of glucose, Altogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose, These figures may still require further tweaking as new structural details become available. This waste product varies depending on the organism. Cellular respiration happens in the mitochondria, a small organelle similar to the chloroplasts. Respiration also produces a plethora of reactive oxygen species, including free radicals, superoxide, and other. Anaerobic respiration is the kind of cellular respiration occurring in cells that do not use molecules of oxygen in … Cellular respiration is a metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose and produces ATP. Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean. Organisms that do not depend on oxygen degrade foodstuffs in a process called fermentation. Cells have fairly good systems of deactivating these substances, but some of them inevitably escape from mitochondria into cytoplasm or extracellular environment. Energy released during the breakdown of glucose and other organic fuel molecules from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins during glycolysis is captured and stored in ATP. This molecule stores the energy released during respiration and allows the cell to transfer this energy to various parts of the cell. Energy released during the reaction is captured by the energy-carrying molecule ATP (adenosine triphosphate). In this process organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are broken down, or oxidized, to provide energy (in the form of adenosine triphosphate [ATP]) for the cell’s metabolic needs. [2] The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy because weak high-energy bonds, in particular in molecular oxygen,[3] are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting. Cellular respiration is a three step process. In Cellular Respiration, glucose and oxygen are reactants of this process. Cellular respiration is the process by which organisms use oxygen to break down food molecules to get chemical energy for cell functions. These molecules go on to fuel the third stage of cellular respiration, whereas carbon dioxide, which is also produced by the TCA cycle, is released as a waste product. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidized glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system). Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. [11], The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the mitochondrion and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO2), but reduced to ethanol or lactic acid in the cytoplasm.[8]. The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. [7] Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria. Google Classroom Facebook Twitter Usually, a total of … The series of steps by which electrons flow to oxygen permits a gradual lowering of the energy of the electrons. In the absence of oxygen, cells can get energy by breaking down foo… (Some sources consider the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl coenzyme A as a distinct step, called pyruvate oxidation or the transition reaction, in the process of cellular respiration.). Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. The series of steps by which electrons flow to oxygen permits a gradual lowering of the energy of the electrons. Explanation: During cellular respiration, a glucose molecule is gradually broken down into carbon dioxide and water. Part of. Some prokaryotes—bacteria and archaea—that live in low-oxygen environments rely on anaerobic respiration to break down fuels. When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis. In July 2019, a scientific study of Kidd Mine in Canada discovered sulfur-breathing organisms which live 7900 feet below the surface, and which breathe sulfur in order to survive. This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. The overall reaction can be expressed this way: Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. The generation of pyruvate through the process of glycolysis is the first step in fermentation. The stages of cellular respiration include glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid or Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Cellular respiration is a process that all living things use to convert glucose into energy. "Why Combustions Are Always Exothermic, Yielding About 418 kJ per Mole of O, Learn how and when to remove this template message, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.9b03352, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.5b00333, "The molecular machinery of Keilin's respiratory chain", "Mitochondrial proton conductance and H+/O ratio are independent of electron transport rate in isolated hepatocytes", "Bioenergetic Cost of Making an Adenosine Triphosphate Molecule in Animal Mitochondria", "Anaerobic Respiration-Electron Donors and Acceptors in Anaerobic Respiration", World’s Oldest Groundwater Supports Life Through Water-Rock Chemistry, Strange life-forms found deep in a mine point to vast 'underground Galapagos', A detailed description of respiration vs. fermentation, Kimball's online resource for cellular respiration, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cellular_respiration&oldid=993624595, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, Articles needing additional references from September 2014, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Carbon dioxide and water are also waste products. Omissions? The TCA cycle (which is also known as the Krebs, or citric acid, cycle) plays a central role in the breakdown, or catabolism, of organic fuel molecules. Obviously this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28–30 ATP molecules. Aerobic cellular respiration is cellular respiration that requires oxygen. [6] When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. b. exercise. Cellular Respiration 1. Please select which sections you would like to print: Corrections? By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. The potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen and protons (hydrogen) as the "terminal electron acceptors". This part of the oxidative phosphorylation stage is sometimes called the electron transport chain. [1] Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. It can be aerobic, where oxygen is present, or anaerobic, where oxygen is absent, and a sugar such as glucose is required to fuel the process. An uncoupling protein known as thermogenin is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons. Cellular respiration is the process in which food molecules are used to produce cell energy. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. The above value of 3 H+/ATP for the synthase assumes that the synthase translocates 9 protons, and produces 3 ATP, per rotation. Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and the most common oxidizing agent providing most of the chemical energy is molecular oxygen (O2). Two low-energy waste products, H2O and CO2, are created during this cycle. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of the inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. The energy of O2 [1] released is used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. Glycolysis in Respiration. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. It also produces electron carriers (NADH, FADH 2) along with carbon dioxide (CO 2) In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. This page was last edited on 11 December 2020, at 16:17. Metabolic reactions in the cells of organisms converting chemical energy from oxygen molecules or nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) while releasing waste byproducts. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert chemical energy from oxygen molecules[1] or nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. It also produces carbon dioxide as a waste product, which then enters the circulatory system. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are redox reactions. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Cells produce energy in the form of ATP through the process of cellular respiration. d. glucose. One objective of the degradation of foodstuffs is to convert the energy contained in chemical bonds into the energy-rich compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which captures the chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it to fuel other cellular processes. Organisms that do not depend on oxygen degrade foodstuffs in a process called fermentation. The main product of any cellular respiration is the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This ATP can be used in a number of cellular reactions, and provides activation energy to help enzymes complete tasks. Electrons that are passed through the electron transport chain ultimately generate free energy capable of driving the phosphorylation of ADP. While the process can seem complex, this page takes you through the key elements of each part of cellular respiration. Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O2) in order to create ATP. Once the glucose is created by the chloroplasts, it can be used to drive other reactions within the cell. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, aerobic respiration is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis, and requires pyruvate to the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the citric acid cycle. …but instead is used during cellular respiration. Aerobic cellular respiration typically occurs in eukaryotic cells, the cells which are found in plants and animals. Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O2) in order to create ATP. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, and the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP to add a third phosphate group to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2. Although cellular respiration is technically a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell because of the slow, controlled release of energy from the series of reactions. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. Biologists differ somewhat with respect to the names, descriptions, and the number of stages of cellular respiration. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, and the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP to add a third phosphate group to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level p… ATP is a high energy nucleotide which acts as … Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. [3][1] Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. "Oxygen Is the High-Energy Molecule Powering Complex Multicellular Life: Fundamental Corrections to Traditional Bioenergetics”, Schmidt-Rohr, K. (2015). Oxidative phosphorylation : Each NADH produces net 1.5 ATP (instead of usual 2.5) due to NADH transport over the mitochondrial membrane. In eukaryotic cells the latter two processes occur within mitochondria. The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the oxidative phosphorylation stage, each pair of hydrogen atoms removed from NADH and FADH2 provides a pair of electrons that—through the action of a series of iron-containing hemoproteins, the cytochromes—eventually reduces one atom of oxygen to form water. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Cellular respiration releases stored energy in glucose molecules and converts it into a form of energy that can be used by cells. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. For example, some archaea called methanogens can use carbon dioxide as a terminal electron acceptor, producing methane as a by-product. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3–), or sulfur (S) is used. If we don’t breathe in more during exercises, our body produces lactic acid which causes the terrible pain in our muscles and joints. Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the high-energy final electron acceptor. The cycle is made up of eight steps catalyzed by eight different enzymes that produce energy at several different stages. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals. Biology. In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. This CO 2 binds with water to form carbonic acid, helping to maintain the blood's pH. The overall process, however, can be distilled into three main metabolic stages or steps: glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation (respiratory-chain phosphorylation). Phosphorylation of glucose and fructose 6-phosphate uses two ATP from the cytoplasm. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. Pyruvate is taken up by a specific, low Km transporter to bring it into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. Cellular respiration has 4 distinct processes, which drive the creation of ATP. In 1951 it was discovered that the transfer of one pair of electrons to oxygen results in the formation of three molecules of ATP. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. Metabolism for survival. Cellular respiration is of two types; aerobic and anaerobic. Anaerobic Cellular Respiration The production of energy requires oxygen. Although much of the energy from cellular respiration is released as heat, some of it is used to make ATP. Cellular respiration is called an aerobic process because it requires a. light. Fun Facts about Cellular Respiration Anaerobic cellular respiration produces only 2 ATP molecules compared to Aerobic cellular respiration which produces 38 ATP molecules per cell. However, the main result of cellular respiration is a product known as ATP (a high energy molecule found in every cell). The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously. Glycolysis can be literally translated as "sugar splitting",[5] and occurs with or without the presence of oxygen. Cellular respiration is the process by which organic compounds (preferably glucose) are broken apart, releasing energy that is used to produce ATP molecules. Glycolysis (which is also known as the glycolytic pathway or the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway) is a sequence of 10 chemical reactions taking place in most cells that breaks down a glucose molecule into two pyruvate (pyruvic acid) molecules. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells. Cellular Respiration Equation: Every machine needs specific parts and fuel in order to function. Fructose 1,6-biphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate. Pyruvate molecules produced during glycolysis then enter the mitochondria, where they are each converted into a compound known as acetyl coenzyme A, which then enters the TCA cycle. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. How does cellular respiration happen inside of the cell? A liver cell has about 1,000 mitochondria; large egg cells of some vertebrates have up to 200,000. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, aerobic or anaerobic respiration can occur. c)cellular respiration converts the kinetic energy of glucose into chemical energy d) all of the above b) the heat produced during cellular respiration is only a tiny fraction of the chemical energy available in a glucose molecule Aerobic respiration, the process that does use oxygen, produces much more energy and doesn’t produce lactic acid. Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose) because the double bond in O2 is of higher energy than other double bonds or pairs of single bonds in other common molecules in the biosphere. [3] However, some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) of high energy as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate. During cellular respiration, several oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions transfer electrons from organic molecules to other molecules. [12] Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Cellular respiration is the process of extracting energy in the form of ATP from the glucose in the food you eat. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. The simplified formula for aerobic cellular respiration is: This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. [13][14][15]. This would imply that in human mitochondria the 10 protons from oxidizing NADH would produce 2.72 ATP (instead of 2.5) and the 6 protons from oxidizing succinate or ubiquinol would produce 1.64 ATP (instead of 1.5). The electron transfer is driven by the chemical energy of exogenous oxygen[1] and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed. [10] Including one H+ for the transport reactions, this means that synthesis of one ATP requires 1+10/3=4.33 protons in yeast and 1+8/3 = 3.67 in vertebrates. Cellular respiration takes place in the cells of animals, plants, and fungi, and also in algae and other protists. Along the way, some ATP is produced directly in the reactions that transform glucose. Cells need to have ATP because it’s the gasoline that powers all living things. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. Answer: ATP. Cellular respiration is the enzymatic breakdown of glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6) in the presence of oxygen (O 2) to produce cellular energy - ATP C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 -->6 CO 2 + 6H 2 O + 36 ATP glucose + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water + ATP Most of the energy obtained from the TCA cycle, however, is captured by the compounds NAD+ and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and converted later to ATP. Cellular respiration refers to the breakdown of glucose and other respiratory substrates to make energy carrying molecules called ATP. This process takes place in specialized structures within the cell called mitochondria, and uses the products of glycolysis, the pyruvate molecules, to release energy, along with CO2 and water as the by-products of the reaction. This is because most of the energy of aerobic respiration derives from O2 with its relatively weak, high-energy double bond. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. Glycolysis is the first stage of all respiration. This part of the oxidative phosphorylation stage is sometimes called the electron transport chain. The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H+ are needed to make 1 ATP. The cellular respiration s tarts by the oxidation of glucose molecule , The glucose molecule is considered as an excellent example to study the steps of breaking down the food molecules , as it is used commonly by the majority of living organisms to produce energy more than any other molecules of available food , Most stages of oxidation process of glucose molecule occur inside the … Isocitrate is modified to become α-ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate. [1] The chemical energy stored in ATP (the bond of its third phosphate group to the rest of the molecule can be broken allowing more stable products to form, thereby releasing energy for use by the cell) can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transport of molecules across cell membranes. The energy not used in this process is stored in plant tissues…, …1931 for his research on cellular respiration.…. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, aerobic respiration is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis, and requires pyruvate to the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the citric acid cycle. Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA and CO2 by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). Likewise, “biological machines” also require well engineered parts and good energy source in order to work.Perhaps the second most important molecule (DNA is the first) is adenosine triphosphate (also known as ATP).Basically, ATP serves as the main energy currency of the cell. Schmidt-Rohr, K. (2020). These organisms are also remarkable due to consuming minerals such as pyrite as their food source. ATP is used by a number of … The number of protons depends on the number of c subunits in the Fo c-ring, and it is now known that this is 10 in yeast Fo[9] and 8 for vertebrates. [6] During the cycle, acetyl-CoA (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). In eukaryotic cells (that is, any cells or organisms that possess a clearly defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles) the enzymes that catalyze the individual steps involved in respiration and energy conservation are located in highly organized rod-shaped compartments called mitochondria. The electron transport chain, where the majority of ATP is formed, requires a large input of oxygen. From the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and oxidation of all the reduced coenzymes. This is consistent with experimental results within the margin of error described in a recent review. 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To oxygen permits a gradual lowering of the ATP produced by cellular respiration is a channel that can protons! Eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation: each NADH produces net 1.5 ATP ( a high energy molecule found in cell. Amounts of energy in the cells of some vertebrates have up to 200,000 within organism!
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